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How do scientists know that there is a boundary called the Moho that separates Earth's thin crust

from the upper mantle? First a little history on one of the greatest contributors

to seismology from the early 1900s. Andrija Mohorovičić was born in Croatia

in 1857 and was trained in mathematics and physics. In 1892, while working on his PhD

dissertation in meteorology at the University of Zagreb on the study of clouds, he became

director of the Zagreb Meteorological Observatory. The following year he became an associate

professor of astronomy and geophysics. At this time, most scientists believed that

the interior of Earth, though hotter inside, has a fairly uniform composition. As seismometers

became widespread, new models were developed. In 1897, German geophysicist Emil Wiechert

invented the first seismometer using viscous damping, capable of capturing not just the

initial jolt, but a much more useful written recording of earthquake-ground-shaking from

worldwide earthquakes. He used these to infer that Earth is layered, comprising a silicate

shell surrounding a heavy iron core. This surely intrigued the physicist in Mohorovičić.

By the turn of the century, Mohorovičić had come to the conclusion that it would take

about 1000 years of observation to gather enough meteorological data to develop reliable

information about the climate, whereas he could make more immediate contributions in

the expanding field of seismology. In 1901, he obtained his first horizontal-motion seismograph

and the Zagreb (ZAG) seismological station was founded.

Five years later, Mohorovičić talked a colleague into lending him a vertical-component seismograph.

It was installed in the basement of the Institute in 1906 and recorded the great San Francisco

earthquake of that year. Unsatisfied with the instrument's performance, compared to

the ground motion recorded by Wiechert, Mohorovičić ordered two Wiechert horizontal ground motion

instruments to be installed at the Zagreb station in 1908 and the second in 1909, fortuitously

capturing the Kupa Valley earthquake that struck in October of that year, just 40 km

south of Zagreb. The data from this event completely engrossed him.

Curious about the seismograms produced by his two stations, and wanting to study the

earthquake in more detail, Mohorovičić asked colleagues all over Europe to send him their

seismograms. He received data from 41 stations. As he studied the data, he was puzzled. If

the outer layer of the Earth was uniform in composition, he expected the arrivals of the

seismic waves to reach distant seismographs at predictable times for the fast compressional

P and slower shearing S waves. What he found, however, was that some signals reached seismographs

faster than he had thought possible. And some seismographs recorded two different P and

S waves that traveled at different speeds. The only way to explain the waves with different

speeds was to hypothesize a boundary in the Earth structure deep below the surface.

Snells Law had taught him that as waves strike a boundary between materials with different

physical properties, they are reflected or refracted, as light is when striking a prism

or water. When seismic waves strike a material with faster velocity at a critical angle,

they refract to travel along the boundary between the two layers at the velocity of

the lower, faster layer, while sending a series of rays, known collectively as the head wave,

back to the surface at the critical angle. When he combined all of the measured seismic

arrival times for this earthquake with earthquake data from previous years,.Mohorovičić noticed

that P waves travelling to distant seismometers actually reached those stations before the

direct wave traveling a shorter path in the upper layer.  This observation requires a

deeper layer that transmits seismic waves faster. Assuming that the lower layer was

flat, he calculated the seismic velocities for the direct P waves and the faster velocity,

called Pn, for a lower layer. The initials Pn stand for P-normal, meaning Mohorovičić

believed that the lower, faster layer was the normal, meaning universal for the Earth.

He had enough data to conclude that the upper 100 km of Earth is not a uniform medium as

was previously thought, but that, at a certain depth, there was a sharp increase in seismic

velocity. He was the first to establish the concept

that this relatively sharp boundary separates the mantle from an overlying crust of different

composition and physical properties. This boundary was called the Mohorovičić discontinuity,

now often referred to simply as the Moho. From his data, he estimated the thickness

of the upper layer (crust) to be 54 km. Subsequent studies across the globe would

confirm the existence of the Moho under all continents and oceans, although it isn't

always simple. Rather than regarding the Moho as the base

of a homogeneous crustal layer, it is better to view it as a zone where velocities increase

rapidly to values above about 7.7 km/sec Regardless, the Moho is recognized as the

boundary zone between Earth's crust and the mantle.

Locating the Moho has helped us understand that basaltic oceanic crust is remarkably

uniform in thickness at five to eight km thick, and that continental crust, with an

average thickness of 40 km, varies greatly from 70 km thick beneath major mountain systems

like the Himalaya where compressional tectonics has stacked wedges of crust on top of one

another to only 25 km thick in rift zones (such as the Basin & Range Province where

crust has been thinned by extension). Although 70 km sounds thick, the crust is just a thin

shell on the outside of the Earth, accounting for less than 1% of Earth's volume. The mantle,

sandwiched between the crust and core, is considered to be of fairly uniform high-iron

and –magnesium silicate throughout. The physical cause of this abrupt increase

in seismic-wave velocity at the Moho is still a topic of continuing research and debate.

It is most commonly attributed to a change in rock composition based on rare locations

where the Moho has been pushed up and exposed at the Earth's surface. Locally, where the

crust is very thick (70 km), the Moho could also be a phase change within rock whose bulk

composition is approximately the same above and below the discontinuity.

The Moho isn't he only boundary within the Earth. The Moho and the attached lithosphere

below is underlain by the relatively weak, ductile layer known as the asthenosphere.

Although the presence of the asthenosphere within the mantle was suspected as early as

1926, its presence wasn't confirmed until analyses of seismic waves from the M9.5 Great

Chilean earthquake of 1960 indicated a universal seismic slow zone approximately 80 to 200 km

(50 to 120 mi) below the surface. The existence of a weak, ductile layer under the rigid lithosphere

proved to be an important clue in the Plate-tectonics puzzle about how lithospheric plates are able

to move across Earth's surface. Andrija Mohorovičić wrote: "The goal of

seismology is to study the interior of the Earth, and to continue where the geologist stops;

it has in modern seismographs a sort of binoculars that enables us

to look into the largest of depths

For more infomation >> What is the Moho? How was it Discovered? (Educational) - Duration: 9:22.

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The Feeling is the Secret Guided Meditation LISTEN TO THIS DAILY - Duration: 26:46.

this video I'm gonna be sharing with you a feeling is the secret guided

meditation that will help you to achieve your goals I believe if you listen to

this meditation for the next twenty-one days it will totally transform your life

welcome back to another video my name is Aaron and I help people to expand their

consciousness now in this video I'm gonna be explaining to you the power of

what it's called the feeling is the secret book by Neville Godard I'm gonna

be sharing with you a meditation at the end that you can listen to every single

night that will help you to achieve your goals

now that's gonna be actually a majority of this video but for the first couple

of minutes what I wanted to do is to share with you how to use it and what

the idea is behind the teaching of neville goddard and how it works with

the feeling is the secret now this is a book that i originally read about five

or six years ago it's a short book it's about 60 pages long and when I read it I

started to really become aware of this window of time before I go to bed at

night and it's the same for everyone as you're going to bed at night what is

happening is your brainwaves are going from that of more of an alpha beta state

which is the more awake States into the deeper levels of consciousness so you're

going from Alpha and Beta into more of a theta state and as you're moving more

into theta Delta State Delta's more of the sleep state theta is more of the

really relaxed meditation state what we're doing is we have this ability to

influence our subconscious mind in a very powerful way and we do that with

feeling the language that the subconscious mind speaks in is the

feeling and that's why the feeling is the secret most people are intending to

change their subconscious mind using logical thoughts but that doesn't work

because that's not the language that the subconscious mind speaks in so many

times we can sit there all we want and say something like I am abundant I am

abundant I am abundant but if we don't feel the abundance underneath that

that's when we move that into what it's called an

incantation when sometimes we can even use our body to change our physiology or

to change how we feel well we begin to do is we begin to then

influence that part of our brain which then begins to influence our life now

understand our subconscious mind runs over 90 percent of our life experience

so when we get to the core of our subconscious mind and we learn how to

influence it everything in our life can change and if you look at it like this

as well when we grow up up until about the ages of 8 to 12 years old

we're in predominantly a theta state which means as we're growing up we're

literally absorbing the environment we are attributing meaning to certain

things and we're doing that all subconsciously we're not even aware of

it that's why a lot of times when you see people going through transformation

type work you may see someone like Tony Robbins that ask someone what was your

relationship with your dad like what was your relationship with their mom like

because the relationship with the parents is the first relationship we

normally have and we have derived so many meanings and associations from them

that subconsciously that's what runs our life so even 3040 years later that

person may be still running on that same subconscious type patterning now here's

the thing up until about the age of 8 to 12 years old we're in that data state so

what happens is right around that time we start to move more into the alpha

state we start to move more from the subconscious mind into the conscious

mind and we start to then have this thought process where we can have like

this barrier between what we think and what we experience now what happens is

then we get set on our ways for most of our life experience so the key and the

power is hacking our mind by knowing there are certain times of a day when

our brain is going into more of a theta state when it is drifting into the

deeper brainwave state to win then we can influence it with emotion so the way

we do this is the twenty minutes when we wake up in the morning and twenty

minutes before we go to bed at night because that's the window of time so

what I do and what I recommend you do is you visualize what you want to

experience as if you already have it as if it's already something that's real

for you and you feel that and you put yourself in the visual visualization

right before you go to bed at night and right when you wake up in the morning

there's a couple hacks I'm gonna be sharing with you in this meditation this

meditation that you are about to listen to is going to be one that you can

listen to right when you wake up in the morning and right before you go to bed

at night I have recommend you listen to it twice a day in order to get the

maximum benefit out of it and this will help you to then start to create a more

empowered self-concept a self-concept as a self image we will always be and

consistent to the self image we have we always do that subconsciously so as we

have a thermometer on our wall maybe what you'll do is you'll see that it's

set at 75 degrees if it gets hotter or colder the AC or the heater work will

kick on to put it back to that set point we may try to change but not change our

setpoint so what will happen is we'll try it we'll start gaining success for

example but if our thermometer is set of 75 and we start to get success it'll

kind of pump on and be like yo that's not who you are come back let's stop let

me sabotage you real quick so that you come back to what's comfortable so it's

about being aware of what that is but this meditation will help you to bypass

all of that so this is why I recommend you listen to it for at least 21 days

right when you wake up in the morning right when you go to bed and you put in

a similar visualization each time you do it for things to really become something

that we experience it takes repetition that's why I recommend with this

meditation some of my other meditations you can maybe switch what you think

about because then you still get a powerful effect this one's a little bit

different you want to imagine a similar thing but you need to make it more about

the focus of the feeling but make it something that's a similar outcome

because what manifestation is the power of it it's a combination of an increased

emotion which is the feeling we're going to be generating with an increased

intention these two things make for what we want to experience in our life but

that intention you want to think I intend dot dot dot you want to think

intention be something that's clear something that is specific something

that you can see every single time you this meditation inattention is like a

declaration of a desire that's the difference between desire and intention

desire says I I want something but an intention says I intend it for that

it's declaring it into the universe is the way you can think about it so what

I'm going to ask you to do right now is to take in a deep breath in a deep

breath out and to feel yourself relax what I'm gonna do in a minute

it's cue the music and then we're gonna move deeper and deeper into relaxation

and I'm gonna guide you along this process of feeling more inside of your

heart center and then what we're gonna do is move into our actual visual

visualizations and feeling as if it is happening now so let's go ahead and take

in a deep breath in and a deep breath out I recommend you listen to this

headphone this meditation with headphones if you can so let's take a

deep breath in and a deep breath out

as you breathe out feel your body relaxed more and more now let's take

another deep breath in deep breath out and as you breathe out put your

awareness in your hands over your heart the heart math Institute has shown that

the more attention we put on our heart center the more we grow that

electromagnetic energy around our body that the power of the heart is thousands

of times more powerful than that mat of the head so let's taking another deep

breath in deep breath out now put the awareness over your hearts

and begin to feel inside of your heart center feel the warmth of your hands

into your heart and feel free to close your eyes now if you wish and know that

with every breath you take you are shifting deeper and deeper into

relaxation you are feeling your body relaxed more and more now put the

awareness in your head feel the sensation in your forehead put the

awareness behind your eyelids feel your eye sockets relaxed

put the awareness in your jaw imagine your jaw relaxing let it be loose relax

the tongue feel the awareness in your neck put on your left arm your left and

imagine a wave of relaxation flowing through your head now imagine this wave

of relaxation flowing through your right hand your right arm feeling it relax put

the awareness in your chest and your heart and imagine there's a ball of

energy inside of your heart any color that you like and imagine with every

breath that you take this energy is becoming more and more powerful you are

feeling it increase imagine that this ball of energy is spinning in the

clockwise position and the faster it spins the more you feel this love

imagine it spinning faster and faster

I'll put the awareness in your stomach

imagine relaxing your hips your left leg and foot

wave of relaxation right leg and foot wave of relaxation flowing through your

whole body now imagine that any excess energy in your body or any energy that's

not serving you is flowing through the heels of your feet

imagine that energy flowing through your body and leaving through the heels of

your feet

feel relaxed

now imagine yourself in a very relaxing place this could be a place that's at

the beach it could be a place that's in inside a room you feel very comfortable

and could be outside in nature wherever you want imagine that you are in this

place

as you look around what do you see

what kind of sounds do you hear

imagine those sounds becoming louder and louder pay attention

to how relaxed you feel

now notice at about 15 or 20 feet away you notice a chair

and this chair is one that you can sit in anytime you want to increase the

feeling inside your body of you experiencing what you want now we're

gonna take ten steps towards this chair and with every step we take we're gonna

feel that as we get closer to the chair we feel an increased emotion inside of

our heart center we're gonna feel more love in our heart than ever before I'm

gonna count down from ten to one with every number I count imagine that the

energy in your heart is increasing you're feeling elevated emotion more

warmth and more love take a step towards this chair ten feeling your body now

begin to move in that direction nine with every number I count you feel

double the amount of love inside of your body double the amount of relaxation

eight getting closer to the chair now seven feeling yourself feel relaxed and

comfortable six feeling this energy in your heart increase even more five four

getting closer three deeper into this feeling of love to an increase in your

heart now and one now you are standing at this chair and you can feel the

energy in your body increasing more and more

now pay attention to how this chair looks

and then notice and become aware that you can sit in this chair and do this

meditation anytime you want and that when you sit in this chair you always

feel relief you always feel an increase in the emotion you want to experience in

your life it's very easy and natural for you to do now go ahead turn around sit

in this chair and notice that as soon as you sit in this chair you can feel how

relaxed you feel how much love you feel

there's something about this chair to you that is so easy to feel the emotions

you want to experience

in this chair your feelings are much more sensitive and you can feel positive

emotions more easily than ever before

now imagine some things that you want to experience in your life certain goals

you have and imagine them as if you are experiencing them now not as if in the

future you will but as if you are experiencing them now

imagine what it would look like through the eyes of that version of you imagine

what you would see achieving a certain financial goal a relationship goal

whatever your goals are imagine a scenario where that is happening

what do you see in this scenario and it's experience

imagine the colors becoming brighter and brighter

what can you hear in this experience

imagine those sounds becoming louder and louder

right now you are feeling as if this is happening

soak in this feeling

notice how natural it is for this version of you

these experiences you're in are a part of who you are

now imagine another scenario of you achieving your goal of you experiencing

something you've always wanted to and imagine it as if you're looking through

the eyes of this version of you

now what do you see

imagine those colors whatever you see becoming brighter and brighter much more

vivid

what are you here

imagine those sounds becoming louder and louder

what do you feel how does it feel to be the best version of you

imagine the feeling in your body increasing more and more

and move to one more experience that would represent you living the lifestyle

you want one more outcome one more goal declare it right now say I intended for

this to happen whatever this is

imagine you're in this scenario what do you see

imagine those colors becoming brighter and brighter

much more vivid what are you here

imagine those sounds becoming louder and louder

what do you feel

feel it as if it's happening right now

now notice that on the right side of this chair you see a dial

and on this dial it is marked the intensity of feeling

well we are gonna do is we are going to move the dial

from one to ten ten being the max where you're gonna feel this emotion through

your heart like never before you're gonna feel as if you've achieved your

goals you're gonna feel the love and happiness

beyond what you can imagine and this will influence your subconscious mind in

a very powerful way

now imagine yourself putting your hand on this dial right now it's marked at

one with every number that I count up you're gonna feel an increase in your

heart center increase of love increase of feeling one fill your hand touch the

dial two as you move the knotch you can feel an increase a surge of love go

through your body 3 feeling more of it now for doubling the amount of sensation

with every number that I count 5 6 an increase of energy in your hearts 7

double the amount of love 8 feeling it more than ever before

9 10 feel this flow through your body allow yourself to soak in this love

feeling

the feeling is the secret

and this is what you're feeling now

this is what it feels like to achieve your goals

soak in that feeling

this is where the power is

this is what influences your subconscious mind

set the intention that before the end of the day you get a reflection

of this change that you made from within you will start to see evidence in your

life of what you want happening because you have shifted your feeling and that

is influencing your sub-conscious mind

now what I'm gonna do is I'm gonna count down from five to one every number I

count you're gonna feel yourself

becoming more alert more present

feeling great five through yourself I'll be coming

alert feeling amazing for doubled the amount of relaxation in your body three

present at the moment two one you can either open your eyes or leave them

closed it's up to you know that from this point going forward everything has

changed in your life because you have shifted your feeling listen to this for

21 days right when you wake up in the morning right before you go to bed and

you will start to experience a profound shift in your life so with that being

said I will see you on the next video peace

much love and namaste

For more infomation >> The Feeling is the Secret Guided Meditation LISTEN TO THIS DAILY - Duration: 26:46.

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What is RS485 and How it's used in Industrial Control Systems? - Duration: 6:28.

Welcome to another informative video brought to you by RealPars.

Today you will learn about RS 485.

If you are familiar with RS 232,

then you may already know a little bit about it.

If not, check out our other video What is RS-232.

The link will be provided below.

Before we get into today's video, if you love our videos,

be sure to click the like button below,

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This way you never miss another one!

Just like it's older brother RS 232,

RS 485 is a form of serial communication.

Think of RS 485 as the younger, faster brother of RS232.

What made it such an advancement over RS 232

was the fact that it could transmit not only a single device to device transmission,

but also a communications bus to connect multiple devices at once.

The configuration and specifications of RS 485

make it faster and extend the range of data transmission.

You aren't limited to fifty feet of cable like with RS 232.

The maximum cable length for RS 485 is typically listed as 1200 meters or about 4000 feet.

Much like RS 232, RS 485 doesn't have an actual standard connector.

Many times the old DB-9 connector is used.

In some applications, terminal strips were used in place of a connector.

This helped RS 485 become a widely used

and very versatile form of serial communication.

Another advantage over RS 232 that I mentioned earlier

is the number of connectable devices.

RS 485 can handle up to 32 connected devices.

RS232 could only handle one.

This allowed users in manufacturing facilities

to connect larger applications and whole machines with one protocol.

Another plus for RS 485 is that it is less susceptible to noise issues.

Electric noise can cause all kinds of problems for electronics.

RS 232 referenced ground to decipher the data it was transmitting.

This allowed for electrical noise to cause interference.

RS 485 avoids this issue which also allows for shielding of the cables to prevent noise.

You may be wondering, what can I do with serial communications, especially RS 485.

One very common example in the automation world

is remote control of VFDs or Variable Frequency Drives.

Many people just call them motor drives.

A simple network of a PLC, VFD,

and an HMI allows remote control of motors in an industrial setting.

Let's say you were monitoring a water pump filling a vessel.

You decide that the water is not filling fast enough to keep up with demand.

With your RS 485 network, you can remotely monitor

and control that pump from a control center.

This is possible since the HMI is connected to your PLC via RS 485.

The PLC is also connected to the VFD via RS 485.

The PLC is programmed to monitor the level of the water in the vessel.

It also allows manual flow control if needed.

All of this allows you to speed up the VFD

that controls the speed of that water pump.

Problem solved thanks to RS 485 communications.

Let's talk about what we now know about RS 485.

It is faster and much more versatile than the older RS 232.

Users can utilize a longer cable, up to 1200 meters or 4000 feet.

The greatest feature of RS 485

is the fact that you can connect up to 32 devices on one system.

RS 232 could only handle one at a time.

There is no standard connector for the protocol.

Most manufacturers still utilize a DB-9 connector.

You can also still simply use a terminal strip.

This makes utilizing RS 485 simple.

All in all, RS 485 really allowed full automation possible

with its ability to connect so many devices at once.

I truly hope this video was helpful.

Please don't forget to check back later for more RealPars videos!

Make sure that you head over to realpars.com.

To find even more training material for all of your PLC Programing needs.

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highly thought after field of automation and controls engineering.

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